Opinions and Social Pressure Response Essay

Summary: In the article, â€Å"Opinions and Social Pressure† by Solomon E. Asch, he states that social pressure from a majority group could influence a person to conform. Asch and his research team wanted to find out how and how much social forces constrain people’s opinions and attitudes. The researchers also wanted to find out whether or not, when confronted with an incorrect answer, individuals would conform to the group or have his own answer. The experiment starts with seven to nine young men seated in a room. The young group of men have been told before the experiment to all agree on the correct answer and continue to say the correct answer, except one person. The last individual has no idea that the others were told to state the incorrect answers the entire time. There are two cards placed in front of the members that consist of four lines, all of different lengths. The card on the left is the line you are comparing the other three lines to on the card on the right. The members would answer which two lines are identical in order from who sat down first to who sat down last. All of the young men continue to give the correct answer. On this set of trials only 1% of the time the subject would disagree with the majority. To see if the minority would continue to conform, Asch conducted a second trial. During this trial, all of the participants, except one, stated the wrong answer. When the last person answered, the subject q uickly changes his answer to the wrong answer. On this set of trials, 36.8% of the time the minority agreed with the incorrect answer. On the third trial, Asch decided to add more people to the minority. As the contestants gave their answers, those in the majority were allowed to give any answer they wanted. These results showed that 13.6% accepted the wrong answer compared to the second experiment. This sudden  drop indicates with only one person in the minority, he was more likely to conform. When there were more in the minority, participants were more likely to answer how they would and not feel pressured. In the last experiment, the member in the minority was allowed to be seated next to someone he knew personally. During this set of trials, the member in the minority ended up answering almost invariably independent. Out of all of the trials, Asch concluded that people will conform for two reasons: they want to fit in with the others and because they believe the group is better informed (on an intelligence level) than they are. Response: While there have been many psychological tests similar to this, this experiment lacks certain criteria that I believe would change the outlook of this experiment. Since this experiment was done in the 1950s, which was a time in which it was the norm to conform, this could not address to young men now based on how time has changed along with norms. Secondly, since this was done in America, this could not fully take effect in other countries because not all countries conform like we do, so the statistical evidence would vary immensely. Besides the negative, two studies have brought some more insight to this experiment that have shed light as to how time changes Asch’s results. In a conformity experiment by Richard Crutchfield, his studies found participants with high intelligence scores and leadership abilities to show less conformity than others-which is something Asch did not address. Secondly, in 1980, psychologists Perrin & Spencer replicated Asch’s study and found only one conforming response in 396 trials. They said â€Å"cultural changes over the last fifty years had led to a reduction in conformity† (McLeod). Based on all the evidence, I do believe that under certain circumstances we do conform, but not a majority of the time due to how we are raised, norms, cultural changes, and other aspects that could change how we view things.

Things Fall Apart Study Questions.

Masbah Ahmed Period 6 12/23/12 Part 1 1. Why does Achebe chose to the title of his novel from Yeats’ poem? How does Achebe’s literary allusion to Yeats’ poem might deepen or extend—by comparison and/or contrast—the meaning(s) of Achebe’s title and his novel? Achebe chose the title because Things Fall Apart foreshadows the disaster which this novel portrays. It’s deepens the comparison by showing that thebook may be about how inner issues cause a usual end. 2. Describe Okonkwo, the protagonist of Things Fall Apart. How does he work to achieve greatness as defined by his community and culture?How does he differ from Western heroes whom you are familiar with? Okonkwo was famous throughout nine villages and beyond because of this toughness. He was tall and huge with bushy eyebrows with a wide nose. Okonkwo achieves this greatness by defeating the greatest wrestler (Amalinze). He expressed his anger by using physical violence. He was nothin g like his father Unoka. Oknonwo is different from western heroes unlike the western heroes, he earned his fame by his genuine strength, he beats his wide if they disobey him, and he was proud of his father. 3. a) Descibe Unoka, Okonkwo ‘s father?Unoka was tall and very thin. He was lazy, reckless, and quiet. He was a loafer, never gave back the money he borrowed from people and because of that everyone in the village swore not to give him any money. Unoka was a coward when it came to war and he could stand blood. b) What are Okonwo’s feelings toward Unoka, and why? Okonwo isn’t proud of his father because of his father was a failure. Everyone in the tribe made fun of his father. His father was scared of blood and war unlike him, and Okonkwo thought a man should be strong like a warrior. c) How does the (negative) examples of the his father shapes Oknokwo’s uccess and character and actions? The failure of Okonkwo’s father turned into hate in Okonkwo ’s heart and that hatred lead him to his success and he earned a title in his tribe. d) What do early descriptions of Okonkwo’s success and Unoka’s failure tells us about igbo society? It tells us that people that weren’t successful and was weak were looked down at in Igbo society and people that were strong and successful were held high. e) How does one succeed in this cultural context? One can succeed in this by taking control of its family (especially women) and proving their strength. Also by being honest and hard worker. ) What do we learn from the system of the taking of titles? We learn that having title(s) earns you respect in the tribes. In order for someone to earn title(s), they must be successful and prove their strength. e) Who seems to be excluded from opportunities to gain such a success? People that are excluded from opportunities are people that are lazy and weak. 4. Describe who Achebe’s intended audience(s) might be. What is the effect on you, as a Western reader and outsider to Igbo culture? How do Achebe’s language choices contribute to the novel? For example, â€Å"proverbs are the palm-oil with which words are eaten. † What does this mean? Ch. offers the story of the mosquito, one of several West African tales that explains why these insects buzz irritatingly in people’s ears. Can you think of any similar folktales told in your culture? What is the moral of the fable of the tortoise told in Ch. 11? What values do these stories reflect? Note that some stories are women’s stories, and others are men’s stories. Achebe’s intended audience might be some who isn’t familiar with Igbo society. The effect Igbo society has on me is being amazed by their life style except the part where the men beats the women, other than that, the culture of Igbo society is classic and indescribable.I think this means proverbs are as important as palm-oil. I don’t think ther e are any folktales in my culture. The moral of the story is not to take advantage of people and be courteous to them. These stories reflect Igbo society’s culture, values, and love. 5. a) Describe the setting (time, place, culture) of the novel. The setting of the novel is around 1900’s of Nigeria in the village of Umoufia b) How is social life organized? Social life is organized based on you what you can do and you success, not on your ancestors. c) What are the important celebrations? Two important celebrations are the New Yam Festival and the Week of Peace. ) What is the role of war, of religion and of the arts? Wars don’t take place that easily. At first they try to come to a solution. Religion is a big part Igbo people. They worship the goddess of the earth and are always careful to avoid committing sins against her (god). Art is mostly of playing drums and flute. e) What is the role of the individual in relation to the community of Umuofia? Individual rel ation to the community is having control and respect by proving his strength, and also his wealth. f) Compare/contrast Igbo life ways, customs, perspectives, beliefs, and values of those of your own culture.My culture is nothing similar to Igbo culture. We don’t celebrate New Yam Festival and we don’t have Week of Peace unlike Igbo society does. 6. What effect does night have on people in Ch. 2? What do they fear? How do they deal with their fear of snakes at night? On dark nights, people are scared to go outside. They fear snakes. They deal with their fear by not going outside at night unless there is enough light. On bright nights, people enjoy taking long walks. 7. a) What the important crops? The important crops are yams, kola-nuts, cassava, alligator peppers, corn, and cocoyam. b) What are the seasons?Some seasons are the New Yam Festival, the planting season and the raining season. c) How does sharecropping work? A land owner allows someone else to live on his la nd and grow crops, and takes 2/3 of the crops as rent payment. d) What are the male and female designated crops, and why? The male designated crop is yams, and the female designated crops are coco-yams, beans and cassava because yams are probably more popular. e) What is the relationship of women to agriculture? The relationship of women to agriculture is that women have to grow stuff just like men, but they can only grow stuff that isn’t yams, they have to grow women's crops. ) In contrast to other (e. g. Biblical) representations of locusts as a terrible plague, how does the village react to the coming of the locusts in Ch. 7? The village excitedly collects them because they are good to eat when cooked, in contrast to biblical representations the locust is seen as something bad about to happen. Masbah Ahmed Period 6 01-06-13 8. What does her power and status in Umofia suggest about women’s role in Igbo culture and religious beliefs? Later in the novel, note Chieloâ⠂¬â„¢s roles in the village (e. g.. in Ch6). What are those roles? What does Ch. 1 incident involving the priestess of Agbala tell us about the value of the culture? What side of Okonkwo is revealed by his behavior during that long night? Chielo’s power and status suggests that women are well respected and becomes the leader or advisor. Chielo was the priest of Agbala, the Oracle of the Hills and Caves. She was a mother of two. Incident involving Chielo reveals how loyal and dedicated people are to their culture by letting Chielo take Okonkwo’s daughter in a late night; they couldn’t refuse owing to their fear, which clearly shows that they are willing to do whatever is necessary.This soft-side of Okonkwo was revealed and his weak-side. 9. Interpret this proverb, spoken of Okonkwo: â€Å"When a man says yes his Chi says yes also. † Trace further references in the novel to the chi. What role does Okonkwo’s chi play in shaping his destiny? Trace the other factors in Okonkwo’s case. What this proverb means is that a man’s god will guide him and help him and he must accept what his does chi does for him. Okonkwo’s destiny was shaped by chi because it was his own chi, that he ended up fighting against and eventually he lost. He thought that anything weak needed to be destroyed.He tries to eliminate any weakness within himself. 10. Compare Obierika—a man â€Å"who thinks about things†Ã¢â‚¬â€to Okonkwo. Note the Instances when Okonkwo fails to heed the advice of others, especially of Obierika: What are the consequences? Three times in Part1, Okonkwo breaks Igbo taboos: what drives him to do so in each cases, and what are the consequences to Okonkwo, to his family and to his community? Okonkwo and Obierika are similar because they are both successful men in Igbo society. They are different because Okonkwo doesn’t think or ask questions before doing something.Okonkwo would do anything to hide his weakness where Obierika shares his weakness, for instance he regrets taking the ozo title. Okoknwo didn't pay any heed to him and leads him break the custom of Week of Peace by beating his second wife, and breaking taboos that caused the people to dislike him and his family leaving them with the fear of getting into a war for the solution of this conflict. 11. Describe Okonkwo’s relationships to his wives and children, especially to Ekwafi, Ezinma, and Nowye. What differing roles and functions do men and women have in Igbo society?What is Okonkwo’s attitude toward women? Another African proverb states, â€Å"It takes a village to raise a child. † Compare/contrast the advantages and disadvantages in this social structure to our own family arrangements in the U. S. Okonkwo’s relationship with his wives and children is fearful nevertheless caring and loving. They all respects Okonkwo and scared of him to death. He expects his children to grow up like hi m. Okonkwo expects his wives to carry out duties thoroughly which includes cooking, feeding the children, cleaning the house and helping with the farming.When they do not fulfill all of their duties, he gets very angry at them and sometimes beats them. If he feels disrespected by his wives; he beats them. His relationship with Ekwafi is special because she ran away from her husband to marry Okonkwo. Even though he loves Ekwafi, she suffered the most out all of his wives. To Enzima, he thinks that it would’ve better if she was boy because of hr qualities and personality. Also Enzima is the only surviving child of Ekwafi which made her more special to Okonkwo. To Nowye, he is really strict because he wants Nowye to grow up strong like him and carry on his legacy.In Igbo society, men are to be strong, successful and should be able to control their women. Women are expected to all the house works. Men and women were given different crops to plant and their funerals were different . Men’s funerals were more important the women’s. Okonkwo’s attitude toward women is harsh and violent. He thinks they should do whatever he says or they will regret it. This proverb’s advantage is that it helps a child to be successful when everyone helps and the disadvantage is that the child will become dependent on others. This is contrastable to the social structure in family arrangements in U.S. because it’s least likely for a society to help out a child because all they know is â€Å"I, for myself†. 12. What is the crime that causes Okonkwo’s to be reprimanded in Ch. 4? What does it tell you about the values of the culture? Why, according to Ezeani, is wife beating considered even at times other than Peace Week? The crime is Okonkwo beats his wife violently because she came home late and didn’t cook any supper even though he wasn’t supposed to hit her because it was the Peace Week. This shows that Igbo culture is practiced by rule and strictly and is taken very seriously.Beating wife is seen as wrong even beyond Peace Week according to Ezeani because the peace should be kept to honor their goddess. 13. a. Briefly summarize the story of Ekwafi given in Ch. 5. b. What kind of woman is she? c. What do you think is the significance of women having to sit with their legs together? d. What is done to break the cycle of birth and death? e. What attitudes toward children does it reflect? f. How does Igbo belief in Ogbanje and the efforts to break the cycle of birth and death contrast to the â€Å"egnima† of â€Å"throwing away† of twins? h.Does Achebe seem to validate the belief in ogbanje? How or why? a. Ekwafi fell in love with Ikemefuna when she saw him wrestling. B. She was the beauty of the village. She ran away from her husband to marry Okonkwo. Ekwafi is the woman who goes after what she wants and she loves wrestling. C. The significance of women having to sit their legs togethe r is it shows that they have self-respect and it is formal. D. To break the cycle of birth and death, they are supposed to find iyi-uwa and destroy it. E. Ekwafi prizes her daughter because she is the only child that survived.F. It reflects that she loves children because show lost many to neglect the one she has. G. The Igbo in ogbanje contrast to the â€Å"enigma† of the â€Å"throwing away† of twins by killing them instead of trying to drive the evil spirits away. h. He does seem to validate in his belief in it based on the depiction. 14. A. What is the purpose of the taking of Ikemefuna? B. How does he come to stay in Okonkwo’s home? C. What is Okonkwo’s relationship with Ikemefuna? D. Compare Okonkwo’s feelings to Nowye’s affection for Ikemefuna? E. Why is Okonkwo disappointed with his son Nowye?F. How has Nowye begun to â€Å"act like a man† (Ch. 7)? G. What values does Okonkwo associate with manliness? h. How does Nowye relate to these values? i. What are the reasons and circumstances of Ikemefuna’s death? j. Why does Okonkwo act as he does, despite the advice of others not to participate in the killing of Ikemefuna (Ch. 7)? k. How does Nowye feel and (re)act? L. Compare Okonkwo’s attitude toward Nowye to Konkwo’s attitude toward his daughter Ezinma (presented in Ch. 8). a. The purpose of taking Ikemefuna was restitution for the death of Umofian woman. B.Okonkwo took let Ikemefuna stay at his house because of the oracle. c. At first their relationship was like a master and slave but later it changed to a father-son relationship. d. Okonkwo likes Ikemefuna more than Nwoye because of the manliness lies within Ikemefuna. e. Oknokwo is disappointed with his son because Nwoye has the personality of his grandfather: weak and soft-minded. f. Nwoye has begun to act like a man by doing masculine jobs, grumbling about women and listening to Okonkwo’s stories about bloodshed and violence. g. Okonkwo doesn’t tolerate weakness in men. h.Nwoye relates to these values because he is starting to show interests in masculine works and continuing his dad’s legacy. i. Ikemefuna was killed under Oracle’s decision. J.. Okonkwo does along because he didn’t want anyone to think he is weak or appear weak to others. K. Nwoye looked at Ikemefuna as a big brother and the death of his older brother left him all alone: he weeps for Ikemefuna. l. Okonkwo loves his daughter Ezinma more than his son Nwoye and he thinks Ezinma should’ve been a boy instead of a girl. 15. How are white men first introduced into the story? Why might Africans suppose that they don’t have any toes?What sorts of attitudes do the African express about white men? White men are introduced as foreign explorers. The Africans suppose that they don’t have any toes because they wear shoes. Africans looked at whites as weird, strange, and enemy of their tribe. 16. How does one-handed egwugwu praise the dead men? What do we learn from the depiction of the funeral ceremony? What tragic incident forces Okonkwo into exile? One-handed egwugwu praised the dead men by dancing while carrying basket of water. We learn that the funeral ceremonies are taken seriously. Okonkwo’s gun explodes and kills a boy accidently. 7. What are these internal conflicts? What part does the village leader Okonkwo play in the dissension? How does Okonkwo jeopardize his own authority within his community? The internal conflicts are Okonkwo beats his wife during Peace Week. He had to pay a fine for his action. Because of what he did, he irritates the Oracles. 18. In what ways can things fall apart be considered a response to depictions of africans in western literature such as joseph conrads heart of darkness or other images of africa portrayed in the westernvmedia,film,books, etc that you are familiar with ?How does Achebe’s novel correct such European depictions of Africa and Africans, and offer you an afrocentric rather than eurocentric perspective? This book shows that actual culture of Africans(Igbo society) ; it’s totally different from what is written or shown on T. V about Africans based stereotypes. Achebe shows how the Africans are loyal to their culture and their religion by explaining the events thoroughly. 19. What aspects to of pre-colonial Igbo culture does Achebe seem to question or criticize? How does Achebe use characters like Obierika, Okonkwo, and Nowye to offer such social criticism of Igbo society?How do the people of Umofia react to change? Achebe seems to question or criticize the consequences people have to pay when it wasn’t meant to take place. He uses these characters to show they were treated and viewed by the society. The people in Umofia would be scared of changes since they were independent, especially with the nature. 20. Describe your initial reading experience and response(s) to Things Fall Apart Part 1 as a cross-cultural encounter: how are you responding to this exposure to traditional Igbo culture and people? Why do you think you are responding as you are?What seems most different and/or foreign to you? What seems most similar and/or familiar to you? My reading experience was astonishing. The Igbo culture is pretty interesting: something I want to look into. I am responding like this because I love learning about new cultures/religions; it helps me understand people’s mind and their course of action. What seems foreign to me is unnecessary actions taken by the Oracle such as taking Ikemefuna and a virgin because of the crime Mbaino committed. What seems familiar to me is gathering during a festival.

Study Guide of Figurative Language

1. I was so hungry that I even ate the plate. What type of figurative language is used in this sentence? A) hyperbole B) metaphor C) personification D) simile 2. My father was the sun and the moon to me. What type of figurative language is used in this sentence? A) hyperbole B) simile C) metaphor D) personification 3. The rain seemed like an old friend who had finally found us. What type of figurative language is used in this sentence? A) onomatopoeia B) metaphor C) personification D) simile 4. â€Å"Smash†, when the cup fell off the table. What type of figurative language is used in this sentence? A) personification B) metaphorC) onomatopoeia D) hyperbole 5. He was a library of information about baseball. What type of figurative language is used in this sentence? A) metaphor B) personification C) simile D) hyperbole 6. The curtain was waving to everyone every time the wind blew through the open window. What type of figurative language is used in this sentence? A) onomatopoeia B) metaphor C) personification D) hyperbole 7. The tree shook its branches angrily. What type of figurative language is being used in this sentence? A) personification B) metaphor C) onomatopoeia D) hyperbole 8. Drip, Drop, Drip, Drop went the rain drops falling on the roof of the house.What type of figurative language is used in this sentence? A) metaphor B) onomatopoeia C) personification D) alliteration 9. Her head was so full of ideas that it was ready to burst wide open. What type of figurative language is used in this sentence? A) alliteration B) metaphor C) hyperbole D) personification 10. The baby was like an octopus, grabbing for everything in sight. What type of figurative language is used in this sentence? A) metaphor B) simile C) hyperbole D) personification 11. That movie took my breath away. What type of figurative language is usede in this sentence? A) alliteration B) personification C) idiom D) metaphor 12.Leslie said that she was in the dark about what's going on. What type of figurative language is used in this sentence? A) metaphor B) alliteration C) idiom D) personification 13. Teddy tiger tried tying teepees together. What type of figurative language is this sentence? A) hyperbole B) idiom C) onomatopoeia D) alliteration 14. Silly sally sang a silly summer song. What type of figurative language is this sentence? A) hyperbole B) onomatopoeia C) alliteration D) idiom 15. I like pancakes so much I could eat a million of them. What type of figurative language is used in this sentence? A) personification B) idiom C) alliteration D) hyperboleWhat is the difference between a figurative and a literal analogy?

CULTURAL EVENT PAPER (MID-OHIO COMIC CON) Essay

CULTURAL EVENT PAPER (MID-OHIO COMIC CON) - Essay Example The main purpose of attending the Convention according to personal opinion was to understand the comic book scene in the United States of America. As I am a foreign student, it was imperative for me to take the initiative and go to a Comic Convention in the U.S because reading comic books has been my hobby since I was a young boy. I wanted to comprehend the kind of characters that the Americans speak of proudly and the comic books that they release to the rest of the world on such popular demand. Furthermore, I wanted to take time out and interact with American people interested in comic books and was also able to make a few contacts and friends at the Convention. This has really provided me with the opportunity to meet new people and share my ideas and thoughts regarding comic books. I am also interested in writing and imagining comic stories and thus wanted to share my ideologies with people because someday I might want to write my own graphic novel and meeting people at such a con vention is the best way of broadening one’s horizons. ... The convention played host to some very renowned celebrities, and they came together to talk to people and share their ideas and thoughts with others as well which in my opinion was a very interesting experience. This event was created by Wizard World.com, a publishing group that has given rise to a number of such conventions all around the United States of America. Wizard World was founded by Gareb Shamus in 1991 and it grew from being just a magazine to a publishing company with a number of interests, the main one today being holding conventions. In America, this entertainment group is very widely known for its convention organizations and boasts of very high attendance of people coming to visit the Convention every time it is held in different cities all around. It has also won a number of awards for conducting some of the best conventions of all time. The event was extremely light and exciting with a number of people coming together to view different comic books, talk to each oth er, listen to the celebrities and interact with them as well as find out information regarding the new comic books on the scene. There was a great amount of energy in the air and the atmosphere was extremely lively as people of all different age groups came together to talk about and meet the parallel world of comic books. As a person completely new to the entire experience of attending the setup I should have felt like an outsider. However, I felt like an insider because of the love for comic books that I shared with everyone at the event. Everyone had the same thing in common and that brought people together. I was able to interact very freely

The history of apple inc Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The history of apple inc - Research Paper Example For many of the business pundits, the history of Apple Company remains a mystery. Many people believe that the growth of Apple Company is indebted to the abilities of its charismatic leader Steve Jobs. Apple Inc started their business with the introduction of Apple branded computers and soon they diversified into many other areas. They have developed an operating system Macintosh for the use with Apple computers and currently apart from personal computers, Apple sells portable media players, mobile phones, computer software, computer hardware and hardware accessories. Apple’s growth was gradual and they never tried to introduce too many things in too little time. They studied the market well before introducing a new product and even after the introduction of a product, Apple was able to make necessary corrections I their products based on the customer feedbacks. This paper briefly analyses the history of the company, Apple Inc. Apple was founded in Cupertino, California on April 1, 1976 by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne (and later incorporated January 3, 1977 without Wayne, who sold his share of the company back to Jobs and Wozniak) to sell the Apple I personal computer kit. They were hand-built by Steve Wozniak in the living room of Jobs parents home, and the Apple I was first shown to the public at the Homebrew Computer Club. The Apple I went on sale in July 1976 and was market-priced at $666.66 (Apple Inc. History, 2008) When Apple introduced its first computer in the market, it was entirely different from what we call a personal computer now. The users forced to use many other types of equipment to make the Apple computer work perfectly. The Apple team introduced around 200 computers initially into the market. The incorporation process of the Apple Company was made in 1977. Till 2007, Apple Computer Inc was the official name of the company. But because of the huge expansion and

What effect does the brightness of light have on the growth rate of a Coursework

What effect does the brightness of light have on the growth rate of a plant - Coursework Example Any change in the growth of plants will thus affect the ecosystem, and thus is important to be studied. In this experiment, pea plants were used to determine whether sunlight has an effect on plant growth. A group of growing seedlings were exposed to the sun, while another set was placed away from light. The heights of the plants were measured repeatedly for 7 days after the seed germination. Results are shown below. Figure 1: Scatter plot of the average values from Table 1. Standard deviations are indicated as error bars. It can be seen that plants L1-L5 were generally taller than D1-D5. As well, it can be noted that the rate at which the plants grow from day 7 to day 14 are faster in well-lit plants than in non-lit plants, as the slope of the trend line for the former is steeper than that of the latter. Conclusion After the experiment, it was observed that well-lit plants grow longer than the non-lit plants. Sunlight is thus necessary in the growth of plants. Theory Photosynthesis Sunlight, through the photons it bears, drives photosynthesis, the food-making process of plants. Without it, plants do not have a source of nutrition needed to power even the most basic processes such as growth (Campbell and Reece, 2002). Photosynthesis is a collection of reactions that results in the reduction of carbon dioxide (CO2) to carbohydrate and the production of oxygen gas (O2) from water (H2O). Pigment molecules such as chlorophyll and carotenoids in the chloroplast organelle are converted to excited electronic state, called excitons, by the photons. This conversion, no matter how effective, is still inefficient, as some of the excitons are converted back into photons as fluorescence, while some are lost as heat. For those that remain in the chloroplast, they drive the electron transport chain along the membrane proteins of the chloroplast, and produce a proton gradient between the membranes. This gradient, in turn, drives the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), w hich is necessary to drive the other part of photosynthesis that converts CO2 to carbohydrates (Whitmarsh and Govindjee, 1995). Phytochromes Aside from photosynthesis, light influences the plants on its other functions through molecules called phytochromes. The light-sensing portion (chromophore) of phytochromes has two isomeric forms, the red-absorbing (Pr) and the far red-absorbing (Pfr), with the former being the synthesized form and the latter instigating most of the plant developmental processes such as germination. Upon exposure of the seed and plant to light, especially red light, Pr is converted to Pfr (Campbell and Reece, 2002). According to Batty (1989), this mechanism ensures that wherever the seed falls, it will be germinating in a place with sunlight, which is needed for photosynthesis, as described above. In contrast, when it falls in a shaded soil, germination is delayed until, by some mechanical force, it is transferred to an area with more sunlight. Aside

Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Education - Essay Example Another importance of nursing education is to enlighten the nurses on what is require of them as well as the most effective way of resolving issues pertaining to their duties as professional (Keating, 2010,p. 3-5; Bradshaw& Lowenstein, 2011, p.1). Nursing Learning Styles These are hypothetical models, which suggest the existing manners of acquiring knowledge and help teacher or lecturer plan and meet the needs of their students. Nursing is a profession characterised by great diversity in terms of culture as well as economic status  of the individuals practicing it as well as the patients the nurses attend to or interact. Nursing professionals are required to learn how to theorize, visualize, analyse, and then come up with the solution to resolve problems. The profession involves carrying several activities ranging from calculating dosages to complex interventions on matters pertaining to patients. To understand how different learning styles apply in nursing education, it is importa nt to have some understanding on the modes of learning applied by different nursing students. Individual learning skill required include visual, Auditory and kinaesthetic (Bradshaw& Lowenstein, 2011, p.279-282; Brockbank, 2002, p. 25). Visual is a critical learning technique for nurses and require that lecturers use material such as charts and illustrative diagrams in lecturing. Organizing notes into diagrams is also an important strategy used in nursing education. Auditory learning involves ability to listen and understand information, which is improved through recording information. Kinaesthetic is a mode of learning that suits individuals who prefer when information is presented in different forms other than having to listen to lectures (Ewan & White, 1991, p. 28; Ewan & White, 1991, p. 44-50). There are several learning styles but nursing profession aims at combining the different individual learning modes to come up with comprehensive styles to take care of the entire individua l profession. Nursing educations combines four learning behaviours found among nurses and include activist, reflectors, theorist, and pragmatist. The learning styles should aim at getting the learner to come out of their comfort zone and be able to experience, reflect on incidents, conceptualize the ideas and then make plans (Keating, 2010, p. 47; Ewan & White, 1991, p. 28). Activism entails involving the learners into several activities to enable them gain experience. This increases enthusiasm and the urge to lean more. This enables nurses to handle emergencies. Activists frequently involve themselves with other people and act fast. Demonstrations work well for this group of learners (Jarvis, 2006, p. 10-12; Brockbank, 2002, p. 33-35). Theorists are those learners capable of integrating vast quantity of information and adapt it into logical hypotheses. They prefer leaning through use of models, theories, as well as case analysis. Reflectors have the capability of viewing informatio n from different perspectives. They prefer learning by collecting information or case studies and analysing them. They are therefore reasonably accurate in making conclusions. They are also good auditory learners and tend to be cautious. Most nurses fall in this category. Use of discussions helps learners in this category Oermann & Heinrich, 2008, p. 50-55). Pragmatists are learners who desire to try out new ideas, which may include theories and novel techniques. They are innovative

The impact of automation Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The impact of automation - Term Paper Example on on the society is an increase in the mechanical power available to an individual owing to the presence of new opportunities and the decreased demand for labour. The opportunities that arise from automation, especially with fabricators are participation in the development, use, repair, and distribution of fabricators, software, and related hardware. The other impact of automation on the society is the increased productivity 100 or 1000 times per machine operator reducing the demand for skilled labour at workplaces (Johnsen, 1976). The effect is an increase in the level of pervert since the extra workers have to be dismissed to pave the way for the machines and affecting the standards of living negatively. The level of unemployment in the society in the economy increases owing to the increased use of machines in completion of tasks previously undertaken by humans. Automation results in better product quality through reduction in human errors in the production process. Automated of inspection and assembly methods result in the improvement of the durability of manufactured products as exemplified with the production of cars, refrigerators, and televisions that have been shown to last longer than previous models owing to automation (Burns, 1993). Quality products from automation result in the value for money for the consumers and less money are spent on replacement and repairs. The standards of living in the society improve with the increased automation of production processes and methods. The other impact of automation has been the increased possibility of recycling of older products for new product models aiding in the reduction of wastes in the society (Burns, 1993). Examples are the introduction of recycling of used Apple products under the reign of Steve Jobs and the recycling of brake shoes and engine blocks in the automotive industry. Structural unemployment emerges and increases as a result of automation resulting in the reduction in consumer and disposal

Berlin Wall Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Berlin Wall - Research Paper Example After the Second World War, Joseph Stalin of the Soviet Union established an informal union of states which would be known later as the Eastern bloc, with Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia as its allies (Wettig, 2008).   It was a grouping of nations which he planned to maintain together with the Soviet-controlled portion of Germany.   His plans were to compromise the power of the UK over its portion and when the US would later withdraw, he then wanted to push forward with his plants to create a united communist Germany (Wettig, 2008).   In order to funnel Soviet communist ideals to Germany, Marxism-Leninism became a standard part of the German school curriculum and this prompted many students, as well as scholars to defect to the West (Wettig, 2008).   East Germany was however under close monitoring by the German police as well as the Soviet secret police, also known as the SMERSH (Wettig, 2008).   This made defection difficult, but not impossible for thousands of East Ge rmans.     With disagreements regarding the introduction of new German currency, Stalin implemented the Berlin blockade which prevented the entry of food and other supplies from the Western occupied blocs (Pearson, 1988).   The Western bloc countries then airlifted some supplied into West Berlin.   The Soviets launched their public relations campaign against the Western bloc protesting the policy changes of the Western countries (Pearson, 1988).   As 300,000 Berliners protested against Stalin’s actions in stopping the airlifts.

Library Classification Essay Example for Free

Library Classification Essay A library classification is a system of coding and organizing library materials (books, serials, audiovisual materials, computer files, maps, manuscripts, realia) according to their subject and allocating a call number to that information resource. Similar to classification systems used in biology, bibliographic classification systems group entities together that are similar, typically arranged in a hierarchical tree structure. A different kind of classification system, called a faceted classification system, is also widely used which allows the assignment of multiple classifications to an object, enabling the classifications to be ordered in multiple ways. DescriptionLibrary classification forms part of the field of library and information science. It is a form of bibliographic classification (library classifications are used in library catalogs, while bibliographic classification also covers classification used in other kinds of bibliographic databases). It goes hand in hand with library (descriptive) cataloging under the rubric of cataloging and classification, sometimes grouped together as technical services. The library professional who engages in the process of cataloging and classifying library materials is called a cataloguer or catalog librarian. Library classification systems are one of the two tools used to facilitate subject access. The other consists of alphabetical indexing languages such as Thesauri and Subject Headings systems. Library classification of a piece of work consists of two steps. Firstly the aboutness of the material is ascertained. Next, a call number (essentially a books address), based on the classification system in use at the particular library will be assigned to the work using the notation of the system. It is important to note that unlike subject heading or thesauri where multiple terms can be assigned to the same work, in library classification systems, each work can only be placed in one class. This is due to shelving purposes: A book can have only one physical place. However in classified catalogs one may have main entries as well as added entries. Most classification systems like the Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) and Library of Congress classification also add a cutter number to each work which adds a code for the author of the work. Classification systems in libraries generally play two roles. Firstly they facilitate subject access by allowing the user to find out what works or documents the library has on a certain subject. [1] Secondly, they provide a known location for the information source to be located (e. g. where it is shelved). Until the 19th century, most libraries had closed stacks, so the library classification only served to organize the subject catalog. In the 20th century, libraries opened their stacks to the public and started to shelve the library material itself according to some library classification to simplify subject browsing. Some classification systems are more suitable for aiding subject access, rather than for shelf location. For example, UDC which uses a complicated notation including plus, colons are more difficult to use for the purpose of shelf arrangement but are more expressive compared to DDC in terms of showing relationships between subjects. Similarly faceted classification schemes are more difficult to use for shelf arrangement, unless the user has knowledge of the citation order. Depending on the size of the library collection, some libraries might use classification systems solely for one purpose or the other. In extreme cases a public library with a small collection might just use a classification system for location of resources but might not use a complicated subject classification system. Instead all resources might just be put into a couple of wide classes (Travel, Crime, Magazines etc. ). This is known as a mark and park classification method, more formally called reader interest classification. . see more from: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Library_system.

Comparative Studies in sociology

Comparative Studies in sociology We undertake comparative study because, notwithstanding the difficulties of this exercise, there are clear benefits Discuss using examples to illustrate your arguments. Comparative study is an area where risks and benefits are very frequently mentioned. Today, Comparative study has grown into a very major field that could be applied to most of the subjects, and especially so, for Sociology and other Social Sciences. The field of Social Policy had been immensely benefited by the comparative study, as this has facilitated to compare the social policies and ways of working with those of other countries. There is a long tradition of fascination of comparing one thing with another of similar position. Social research has a long and healthy background. Through systematic study, Montesquieu wished to see how, in ways previously unsuspected, society forms people as social creatures. At the same time, he did not view society in terms of progressive development, but one of advances and set-backs in the path to liberty and all that was good, says Tim May, (1996, p. 15). Benefits belong to the fact that only a comparative study could hope to identify the factors that are specific to national health care systems, as distinct from being common to all such systems. A comparative perspective can extend national ideas about what is possible and at the same time provide the understanding that must precede prescription. Comparative study is an important part of diverse branches of Social Studies. For years now, empirical and comparative studies, have formed integral part of any ongoing research of Sociology. Comparative study as a tool of research in most of the subjects has come to be accepted over the years. It can bring out elements that could offer an overpowering study. Before analysing the negative and positive points of the comparative study, focus should be on the preliminary questions that have to be answered. Defining the level of comparison is the best way of starting a research on comparative basis. A researcher might offer many levels or might target the minimum levels needed for the comparison. Levels of comparison may be internal, like comparisons with one local governments and another, or intra-organisational comparisons, taking two or three organisations for this purpose. Or comparisons could be between different systems like international comparisons, private and public sector comparisons. Studies have to be concerned with similarity or dissimilarity. The targets of study should be directly or indirectly comparable. If comparability could not be established, it is difficult to conduct even an unclear and incoherent comparative study. Target groups should be clearly defined and the researcher should have complete knowledge of his research topics. The path in which his research is heading should be crystal clear to the researcher. Validity of comparison should be an accepted one. Th is would help the scholar, as the acceptance of his theory through the study would be very important to him. Comparative evaluation, which perhaps might be the last goal of the researcher, should be clearly defined and the study should be conducted with this Difficulties had been plaguing Comparative Study from the beginning. The units of the comparison of organisational systems or even the sub systems cannot be the same and this had been the grouse of many social scientists. Risk also lies in the temptation of social scientists to seek perfect solutions to national problems in the experience of other countries. This is not a clever way of conducting research, because the distinct peculiarity of such a situation could not be emulated for the purpose of studies. Each countrys experience will be unique and diverse under the peculiarity of given circumstances and such a strangeness could not compared with another one, with perhaps a uniqueness of its own. This social, political and economic eccentricity could be the product of that particular country and culture and cannot be universal. According to some of the researchers, theory plays very little part in the comparative study. No doubt it is there, but it figures as a very small part of it. But theory does not make as big a contribution as it should make. This had been a stumbling block ever since the comparative research has become popular. Another problem that surfaces very often is that comparative study has become too common. Starting from ordinary market surveys, public opinions or any smallest thing possible, has come under comparative study and hence, this has become a very common way of research. There is no novelty left in it, and it has become stale. The methodology has been used too many times with too little gratification. This had been the argument of many social scientists. There is another argument that a universal social science is emerging due to over use of the comparative study. In a historical study of development of comparative social research Scheuch shows how the commercial institutes for market and opinion research went into cross-national comparisons as early as in the thirtees, (Oyen, p.6). This would erase the peculiarities and distinctions of various societies leading to a uniform kind of society without any differentiation and that would be the ultimate human tragedy. Another disadvantage lies in the sampling and sometimes the impossibility of it. Sampling might suffer due to lack of variety. And then dimensions might differ. Especially in studies of ethnicities, this could be a problem. The uniqueness, peculiarities, strangeness of one country might not be identified in another country. It is not possible to trace the counties who have the similar cultural peculiarities. People too would have their own distinctive features and this makes the study more difficult and less clear. Indirectness of the observations is not appreciated by many social scientists. They feel that study becomes rather impersonal and lack lustre. They argue that studies conducted on Sociology should be more personal and connected to humanity, instead of raking up a cluster of figures. Comparative study has emerged as one of the biggest and much used tools of sociological research. While conducting either an evaluation or study, it is much easier and clearer to have another standard to compare it with. If there is no way of measuring it, the study does not become clear. As it is, Sociology is such a branch of study that faces criticism, as everything in it is lucid and a kind of myth making. These studies provide a firm basis against which the other details could be checked and they provide a checking point. Study by comparison has its own drawbacks. Circumstances may not be similar. Objects may not be similar. End product could be different. Atmosphere could be different. Circumstances could be altered every now and then. It is not possible to keep the same kind of circumstances endlessly as these studies could go on for years at times. Social atmosphere had been mercurial and it is too much to expect that they would remain static to oblige the social scientists. The standard set may be a difficult one. It might vary later or many more changes and alterations could be demanded. There might not be much similarity between the circumstances. Comparative ethnic studies is one of those areas where it is impossible to find a similarity between the communities and yet, a researcher is forced to find some similarities at least. But it is an accepted fact that ethnic societies could never have similar customs or background. Tensions, ancestry could never be the same, even though the future socie ties might be heading towards a depressing similarity. There is no study in sociology, which is not at least remotely compared with something else. It has become a regular practice of most of the evaluative studies. There are negative points. All the time, it is not easy to find exact or even passable comparisons. But social policy has made comparative study a necessity, as the Social Policies of other countries are compared with it either to its advantage or disadvantage all the time. It is impossible to find exact similarities so that the comparisons could be apt. As a result, the results cannot be accurate. Results would be more of speculative or hypothetical nature, than concrete one. Different types could be compared at the same time and time would be saved. All need not be given explanatory details. If one is given and the rest of them are just shown in the symbolic way, it should be enough. And this advantage makes the rest of them to be compared with one point and that way it is less confusing and more genuine. There are several ways of gaining an entry into the comparative method but none of them are simple and instantaneously gratifying. Mainly it started with cross-national studies. Some of these sources are located outside the arena of sociological research. There are many internal and external forces at work in a comparative study. The recent internationalization has led to many kinds of social, political, cultural and economical interaction beyond the boundaries of nations and countries. Intense mobility has taken over and people are not committed to one land any more. Internationalism could be seen in every field. In the same way, problems that used to be internal have got globalized. Very few internal problems have remained today and most of the problems are internationalized and sensationalised. Some people who are initiating the surveys may be having interest in more than one country and perhaps they would like to see if they could get a cross-country comparative study, which would be positively helpful in their own work. Politicians call for such studies to sum up their achievements. Comparing their achievement with another country might make them feel smug, if the other countrys achievements are comparatively insignificant. Politicians would definitely feel that their status internally and externally grows with that kind of comparison. Comparison study is also based on the theory of pluralism and not on totalitarianism. Another area that is coming under comparative study very often nowadays is the international eco system. After the conservation and concern for eco system have become a world concern, comparative study on this science has become imperative. Even though we do not have other worlds to compare the eco system with, comparison with various parts of the world and their eco systems have become a fruitful study that gives opportunity not only to improve the errors, but also to study the results of conversation activities. Still more precise comparative studies in this area are needed. This has become a major area of research based on comparative evaluation in recent years and this would go on improving. Even the reliability of these studies is improving fast. The national and international surveys and studies have filled up the databanks in every subject. New Techniques and methodologies have been employed recently. Social scientists have become more and more adept in their studies and Sociology, from more or less an abstract subject, is fast becoming a precise area. That is one more advantage of comparative study. It is capable of giving preciseness into any vague subject. New software of recent technologies could be used for the comparative study more easily. Technical issues involved in cross-national studies could be researched and evaluated without complication. Cross-national research has adopted various patterns and relationships. Comparative study has brought subjects like Sociology from the theoretical mode. Throughout the period during which we have been struggling with comparative research, one lesson learned is that whatever we do in the way of cross-national comparisons must be theoretically justified and cutting into countries theoretically is a complex process of the beginning of which we have only caught a glimpse, says Oyen, (1990, p. 3). Hence, comparative study does not reduce Sociology totally to a subject of statistics and figures, but keeps the theoretical part of it equally important. Looking from that point of view, it could be stated that comparative study furthers the subject without harming its traditional fabric. It is an additional asset and definitely not an usurper. Cross national research employing comparative study as a tool is mainly done to reduce variance that had been remained hitherto unexplained. Sociologists too are showing more and more preference towards conventional ways of research. Even though new methods are adapted, they are against abandoning the traditional ways of research. Macro sociological analysis and micro sociological methods combine both theory and practice. Normal behaviour and norms cannot be studied without acknowledging deviations from the normal. Actually, no social phenomenon can be isolated and studied without comparing it to other social phenomena, according to Oyen (p. 4). International social science has come a long way, mainly due to comparative study. After the advent of globalisation, social science has not remained curtailed to particular countries any more. It has become part of the world social science. Now Comparative studies have emerged victorious bringing the world societies together. This has brought up another advantage. Any kind of knowledge anywhere in the world is becoming the common property of the world in no time, and based on that, further knowledge gets built up continuously. The knowledge of the present generation, compared to the earlier generations is growing very fast. CASE STUDIES: 1. The case of abolishing child poverty: Child poverty is a depressing phenomenon, which is plaguing all the countries in the world in some way or other. Child poverty is connected with the parental poverty and so, the standard of living has to be improved to undermine the child poverty. At the same time, there are orphans, deprived children and it is not practical to connect all of it to the parental poverty. Child poverty is very different from country to country depending on the standard of living, resources, government care and many other social, economic and political causes. Still a comparative study of various countries would yield useful results for the ongoing struggle against child poverty. There is strong evidence that unemployment, even if not accompanied by poverty, has serious secondary effects. A recent Danish study shows that it doubles the chances of family break-ups, and much later, of unemployment among the children, (Esping-Anderson, 2002, p. 54). 2. Gender inequality: To a certain extent gender inequality exists in all societies Western or Eastern. In Western societies, it is found less virulent, whereas in traditional societies, it assumes threatening stature. A comparative cross-nation study, on the face of it, might look absolutely unnecessary and ambitious. But it does help. Taking other factors into consideration, combining the backgrounds and politico-social elements of each society, a cross national study would help the scholar to form a balanced view of the gender inequality of the entire world and that would give a proper perspective to his own research. 3. Social Policy: Over the years, social policy, especially in Western societies, has become an obsession and necessity. Other that countries like America and Canada, most of the Western countries are small in size with less population. Concentrating on this populations welfare, combined with the wealth these countries possess, it had not been impossible for them to concentrate and evolve an effective Social Policy. This does not mean that it is without flaws and drawbacks. But for the erstwhile colonies, it is still an uphill task to feed their enormous population, educate and clothe them while struggling continuously to improve the standard of living. So, they are totally dissimilar to each other. Still, through comparative research, it is noticed that there are many fields where the experience of one country could be used very effectively by another country to enormous advantage. Comparative studies on social policy comparing the Western countries to each other, comparing them col lectively with other developing countries, comparing the European social policy system with that of Canada or USA had been a continuous, thriving branch of the study for social studies. These studies should not be dismissed lightly. They form the basis of further improvement in social polities of all countries. They combine many factors available in all countries and even the so-called highly advanced countries could derive plenty of benefits from the practical knowledge of other lesser-known countries. There are different medical systems, hitherto not really popular. Bringing them to the forefront and conducting further research on them could be highly beneficial to other systems. They could be complimentary to other systems and effectively fill the knowledge gaps. There is no such thing called perfect and ultimate knowledge and there is always something to learn even from the most ancient societies. Comparative studies have unfailingly pointed out this wisdom. We are in an era in which rival forces, once again, promote their blueprints for a Good Society. Indeed, much suggests that we are heading towards yet another historical regime shift, according to Esping-Andersen, (2002, p.2). BIBLIOGRAPHY: 1. Esping-Andersen, Gosta, (2002), Why we need a New Welfare State, Oxford University Press. 2. Elienne du plessis, (2004), Compulsion and Restitution, Stair Society, Edinburg. 3. Hensel, Howard, (2004), ed. Soverignity and the Global Community, Aldershot, Hants. 4. Hansen, ed ((2002), A Comparative study of six city state cultures, Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, Copenhagen. 5. Kamerman, Sheila and Kahn, Alfred, (1981), Child Care, Family Benefits and Working Parents, A study in Comparative Policy, Columbia University Press, New York. 6. Knorr-Cetina K. and Cicourel, A.V., eds., (1981), Advances in Social Theory and Methodology, Routledge Kegal Paul, London. 7. May, Tim, (1996), Situating Social Theory, Open University Press, Buckingham. 8. Oyen, Else, (2002), Comparative Methodology, Sage Publications Limited, London. 9. Quovertrus, Mads, (2002), A Comparative Study of Referendums, Manchester University Press. 10. Whiteford, G. (2003), A Comparative Study into the competitive Advantage Theories, (Thesis).

Democracy in Africa: Botswana, Morocco and Ghana

Democracy in Africa: Botswana, Morocco and Ghana Contents (Jump to) INTRODUCTION Categories of democracy Direct democracy Indirect/ representative democracy Characteristics of democracy Elected representative; Free and fair elections Civil liberties/ Fundamental human rights Rule of law Separation of powers Democracy in Africa Botswana Uninterrupted Free Elections Accountability and Transparency Anticorruption Powers Fundamental human rights Morocco Authoritarian Monarchy Reforming Monarchs Reconciliation and Justice Freedom of Expression Ghana Conclusion Bibliography INTRODUCTION Democracy is a term conversant to most people, but it is misunderstood and misused at a time when authoritarians and coup leaders assert popular support by claiming the mantle of democracy especially in Africa. Democracy has prevailed through a long and turbulent history, and democratic governments in Europe and America, notwithstanding continuing challenges, continues to progress and flourish throughout the world. Democracy derives from a Greek word demos, or people, it is defined as government in which the supreme power is vested in the people. A democracy is a system of government in which leaders are elected in competitive elections, where many parties and candidates take part and where opposition parties can attain power if they gain widespread support (deth Van Deth, 2005). Democracy has different forms, in some cases it can be exercised directly by the people, in large societies or by the people through their elected representatives. According to the memorable phrase of Abraham Lincoln, â€Å"democracy is government of the people, by the people, and for the people.† Categories of democracy Democracy has two categories, direct and representative. Direct democracy Citizens partake in making public decisions without the intermediary of elected representatives. This system is practical with rather a small number of people in a community, tribe council, for example in the UK, New England Town Meeting residents of the town attend debates and vote directly on town policies. Some U.S. states, practice direct democracy by placing propositions and referenda to change laws. In Switzerland, vital political decisions on matters, including health, employment, are put to vote by the citizens. Indirect/ representative democracy Indirect democracy is a system of government in which the public controls the government through elected representatives. The voted agents represent the people as opposed to the direct democracy whereby citizens make public policy decisions directly through polls or initiatives. An example of this type of democracy is in Kenya. The public votes in people to represent them in government institutions. The elected officials make laws, political enactments and administer public programs. Characteristics of democracy Democracies are different in every part of the world; people’s democratic ideals are influenced by their culture and society. It is more than a set of precise government institutions (Gupta, 2013). Most democracies rest upon a well unstated set of values, attitudes, and practices which may have diverse forms and expressions among cultures and societies around the world. However, the fundamental characteristics and principles of a democracy remain consistent (Cincotta, 2004). A true form of democracy should include: Elected representative; Free and fair elections All democracies should hold regular elections and allow adults or people of a certain age to take part in voting. The elections should be free and fair so as to encourage political competition for the good of the public. A democracy must have officials elected by the people to make laws and frame policies of the government. Civil liberties/ Fundamental human rights A vital characteristic of democracy is that it gives or ensures its citizens have top civil rights or fundamental rights. Democracies allow their citizens freedom of speech and press, freedom of religion and conscience, freedom of assembly and association, right to equal protection by the law, right to due process of law and fair trial, and property rights to land goods and money. Rule of law Rule of law is another characteristic of democracy. Democratic governments should ensure that there is rule of law whereby no individual is above the law and there is due process of law. This ensures emphasizes that the Law is supreme and citizens are all equal in the eyes of law. Separation of powers A democracy should ensure that all institutions of the government have equal power. This ensures accountability by encouraging checks and balances between the government institutions. Democracies with separated powers ensure provisions for effective checks and balances between the executive, judiciary and the parliament are made. This makes sure that all levels of government must be as accessible and responsive to the people as possible. Democracy in Africa Democracy started sweeping across Africa in the early 1990s after the end of cold war. A wave of democratization was propagated all over Africa by the West. Claude Ake argues that the reforms in Eastern Europe contributed to the west advocating for democracy in Africa. Ake claims that Eastern Europe provided the West with a dramatic vindication of its own values and a sense of the historical inevitability of the triumph of democracy (Ake, 1991), a mission widely believed, would consolidate the domination of Western ideals all over the world. Authoritarians and single party states were forced by western powers to democratize their states. Undemocratic states were expected to launch democratic reforms so that they could get international support and donors themselves started to provide democracy assistance. Activists during the time of democratization of Africa wished for more political freedoms and strong institutions hoping that democracy would lead to more government accountability and more effective development. Africans themselves have also struggled for democracy, an example of this is the Saba Saba movement whereby Kenyan political activities fighting for multiparty democracy had a violent confrontation with authorities. Ake gives examples of the popular rejection of military rule in Nigeria and also the struggle for multiparty in Cameroon (Ake, 1991). Thomas C. Mountain argues that Western style â€Å"democracy† is destroying Africa. Thomas insists Africans should have been allowed to practice their traditional form of democracy which was more of most arriving at a consensus where everyone got something after persuasion by council of elders (Mountain, 2012). Democracy in Africa continues to face many challenges such as poverty, coup d’à ©tats, corruption and many other problems. However there are countries that have overcome these problems and challenges. Some of these states have enjoyed long periods of political stability but their level of democracy can be argued according to ones definition of democracy. A case study of three African states would be used to analyse democracy in Africa. Botswana In November 2008, Festus Gontebanye Mogae, the former president of Botswana received an award from (Sarkin Cook, 2008)Ibrahim Prize for Achievement in African Leadership. The reason why Botswana’s president won was because [Botswana‘s] democracy was strong, stable and rooted in the rule of law. Botswana was widely regarded as one of the more effective countries in the world in combating corruption. President Mogae‘s outstanding leadership has ensured Botswana‘s continued stability and prosperity in the face of an HIV/AIDS pandemic which threatened the future of his country and people. The Prize Committee believed that good governance requires an environment conducive to peace, security and development, based on the rule of law and respect for human rights. Botswana has had to address the challenge of advancing each in a balanced way. This has been helped by the independence and integrity of its institutions which bodes well for further progress towards sprea ding wealth and opportunity across all sectors of Botswana society. Botswana’s democracy has been characterized by: Uninterrupted Free Elections Botswana is one of a few African countries that have enjoyed free and uninterrupted elections in Africa since it gained independence from Britain. Having held free elections since it gained independence, Botswana portrays an ideal democracy in Africa. Civilian rule has been uninterrupted by the military or any autocratic governments. Accountability and Transparency Botswana has had a reputation for accountability and transparency. Accountability and transparency have been formalized through mechanisms such as the constitution and legislation requiring open government, accountability, and transparency. Presidents of Botswana have insisted on governments accountability mechanism and limiting corruption Anticorruption Powers Botswana’s government enacted a bill in 1994 that set up an anticorruption body. The anti-corruption body was vested with the powers to conduct investigations and make arrests. (Sarkin Cook, 2008) In Botswana, there are laws that establish civilian supervision over the police and a process, through a supervisory body, for civilians to lodge complaints against police abuses and other human rights violations. Fundamental human rights The constitution of Botswana guarantees the freedoms of speech and the press, association, religion and right to equal protection by the law. The right of the citizens is protected by the constitution which is the supreme law of Botswana. There are many reasons for Botswana‘s democratic success. Some reasons are due to Botswana‘s unique history and context, a few are coincidental, but several are as a result of efforts put in by the country‘s leaders (Sarkin Cook, 2008). (Hazan, 2006)Scholars have debated these achievements, resulting in many assessments applauding Botswana and a handful that note Botswana‘s success story is not without significant flaws. Some of these flaws include oppression of the minority San tribe, expulsion of foreign reports and scholars, and limitations on access to information. Morocco Authoritarian Monarchy The kingdom of Morocco is an example of an authoritarian state. After its independence, Mohammed V assumed the title of king after imposing a constitutional monarchy and establishing a one-party state. Morocco has been characterized by oppression of opposition, forced disappearance, extrajudicial killings, and imprisonment of political opponents. (Hazan, 2006) Reforming Monarchs Remarkably for an authoritarian leader, King Hassan IIs last, initiated a reform and reconciliation process, in which he freed political prisoners, enacted constitutional amendments in 1996, which established a bicameral parliament with extended powers, and launched an independent commission of inquiry to start investigative human rights abuses. Hassan invited exiled political opposition to return and after the 1997 legislative elections, which despite irregularities brought many previously banned parties and opposition members to the Chamber of Representatives. Unusually for an authoritarian leader, Hassan 2 initiated a reform and reconciliation process. When Mohammed VI, the son of Hassan 2 assumed the throne in 1999, he continued with his fathers political reforms. The King gave out two amnesties, resulting in the release of thousands of political prisoners. By the election in 2002, the elections were deemed free and fair by international observers. In 2004, a new law was passed and it placed restrictions on polygamy, divorce and improved women’s right. Reconciliation and Justice Mohammed VIs established the Equity and Reconciliation Commission (IER) in 2004 with a mandate to examine human rights abuses that occurred from 1956 to 1999. Driss Benzekri, a former political prisoner was appointed as its head. The nature of the commission assessment of compensation brought about changes in government’s support for international human rights agreements previously unsupported. (Hazan, 2006) Although Hassan II and Mohammed VI introduced reforms, they were outwardly impressive. They made sure that no real changes to the constitutional monarchy were made to date. . Freedom of Expression Morocco is extensively condemned for its lack of freedom of expression. The government exercises control over the media and punishes a few independent newspapers that exist. Most broadcast media in Morocco are entirely or partially owned by the state. Self-censorship is common due to punishment for coverage that is deemed inappropriate by the government. Newspapers such as Le Journal have been shut down or penalized, and editors arrested. Le Journal came under government condemnation for its political coverage, and also coverage of corruption of government officials. The Moroccan government has failed to respect human rights since independence, and its constitutional monarchy does not tolerate any serious checks and balances on the kings powers or actions. No democracy movement has been able to press for the resignation of the king or to fight for reforms. (Hazan, 2006) The recent resolutions have failed to create a genuine accountability or justice for the victims or their families. Due process and rights expression and association remain curtailed. Ghana Ghana is rated highly on most of basic measures of democracies. This includes protection of fundamental civil liberties and human rights. Ghana has been successful in holding free and fair elections over the past two decades, and reducing poverty. Ghanaian democracy has not been as much successful in participation of most political actors in the country’s governance processes and institutions beyond elections. (Anebo, 2001) Actual participation drafting and implementation of public policy has been restricted to a number of political elite who have succeeded in capturing the presidency although through fairly competitive elections. The president has more powers than the other branches of government. He enjoys vast political and economic resources that he can use to get political support. Elections are the only real check and balance on the executive. Although major political parties, the New Patriotic Party (NPP), and the National Democratic Congress (NDC) have accepted the legitimacy of the guidelines that govern politics in Ghana, these guidelines have serious flaws. (Bratton, Michael, Lewis, Boadi., 2001)The elite accord among partisan parties is an agreement to uphold the status quo, regardless of its negative impact on good governance and democratic practice. Ghanaians expect economic and social benefits (Anebo, 2001) of democracy than the government appears to produce through existing institutional arrangements. The 1992 Constitution of Ghana guarantees the Human Rights of all individuals found within the territorial boundaries of the Republic of Ghana. Chapter 5 of 1992 Constitution, Fundamental Human Rights and Freedoms ensures rights such as right to life, economic rights and womens right are adhered to. The entire chapter 5 can only be amended by the people of Ghana through voting at a referendum. Ghanaians enjoy freedom of press and information thus making it one of the countries in Africa that does not oppress the media. (Arthur, 2010) Conclusion Africa has a long way to go to attain full democratic status with them being welfare states. There a lot of limitations those hinder the full initiation of democracy in many African countries. Ethnicity, poor leadership, poverty, corruption have been significant in preventing democratization in Africa. I strongly agree with Akes arguments that the trail of democracy would not feed or shelter the needy. (Ake, 1991) If Africa is to achieve democracy, people must first be enlightened and kick out the anti-democracy forces. Some African countries are still under authoritative and corrupt rulers. These leaders pretend to be practicing democracy; they hold elections full of deceit and thus cling on to power. Democracy must be considered African context most pressing needs and people must first be educated to accept and appreciate democracy as Ake argues. (Ake, 1991) Bibliography Ake, C. (1991). Rethinking African Democracy. Journal of Democracy, 33-44. Anebo, F. (2001). The Ghana 2000 Elections. Journal of African Political Science, 69-88. Arthur, P. (2010). Democratic Consolidation in Ghana:The Role and Contribution of the Media, Civil Society and State Institutions . Comparative and Commonwealth Studies, 203-226. Arthur, Peter. 2010. Democratic Consolidation in Ghana: The Role and Contribution of the Media, Civil Society and State Institutions.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬- Comparative and Commonwealth Studies 48(2): . (n.d.). 203-226. Bratton, Michael, Lewis, P., Boadi., E. G. (2001). Constituencies for Reform in Ghana. Journal of Modern African Studies, 231-259. Cincotta, H. (2004). Democracy in brief. Washington DC: division of US studies. Deth, k. n., Van Deth, J. W. (2005). The Democratic State. In Foundations of Comparative politics (p. 22). New York: Cambridge University. Gupta, T. (2013, 12 4). preserve articles. Retrieved from preservearticles.com: http://www.preservearticles.com/2012051632235/what-are-the-five-features-of-democracy.html Hazan, P. (2006). Morocco: Betting on a Truth and Reconciliation Commission. United States Institute of Peace Special Report 165 . Mountain, T. C. (2012). Destroying Africa With Western â€Å"Democracy†. Foreign policy journal, 72-96. Sarkin, j., Cook, A. (2008). Is Botswana the Miracle of Africa? Democracy, the Rule. TRANSNATIONAL LAW CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS, 453-457. Individual Differences: Trait Theory and Personal Constructs Individual Differences: Trait Theory and Personal Constructs Miss Emma Elizabeth Dorothy Meredith How well does trait theory help us understand individual differences? Discuss this question with reference to personal construct theory. This essay will explore trait theory and how it helps us to understand individual differences in comparison with personal construct theory. The basis of each approach is; trait theory describes a reasonably solid characteristic which differentiates one individual from another, whereas personal construct theory argues that individuals create their own way of making sense of the world through creating their own private structures. The essay will begin by outlining the main notions of the theories, to gain an insight of how individual differences are perceived by each approach. This essay will aim to identify strengths and limitations in each approach and will conclude by evaluating the extent to which each theory can account for and explain individual differences. Trait theory is based in the social cognitive perspective and developed from the experimental tradition to individual differences and which are seen as fixed ways in which individuals can vary from each other (Butt, 2012). The aim of trait theory is to find commonplace dimensions from a broad variety of individuals, which would then help theorists to predict the behaviour of an individual in certain situations. Individual differences are defined by using questionnaires as a measurement of personality. This fits in well with the social cognitive approach which sees individuals as information processing beings in the social world (Hollway, 2012). Eysenck and Rachman (1965, cited Butt 2012) argued genetic and biological factors were responsible for personality traits. By using psychometric tests, designed to assess traits of individuals, they sought to explore personality causality. Eysenck’s theory suggests personality can be characterised by three specific traits (extraversion/ introversion, neuroticism and psychoticism) suggesting each of these traits are characterised by particular behavioural attributes. From the data gained from Eysenck’s personality inventories (Eysenck and Eysenck, 1963, cited Butt 2012) they argued these traits are behavioural expressions of biologically based differences, similar to the â€Å"four temperaments† of Hippocrates and Galen from Ancient Greece. Eysenck and Rachman’s (1965, cited Butt 2012) research claims there are two main dimensions of personality which are unrelated. These are extraversion and neuroticism and are behavioural definitions of differences in temperament. They argue these dimensions are grounded in autonomic and cortisol arousal and suggest the relationship between behavioural patterns and inherent brain structure is similar to phenotype and genotype in biology (Butt 2012). It was argued by Eysenck there could be a clinical application if main dimensions were found and linked to disti nctive types of neurotic behaviour and may explain the some of the psychological disorders some individuals acquire, which would allow for future treatment and interventions. Trait theories of personality describe personality in terms of characteristics such as, reliable – unreliable, or group traits, which have been recognised through factor analysis to form clusters into personality dimensions, for example, extraversion includes traits such as ‘risk taking’ and ‘sociability’(Stevens 2007). Personal construct theory was developed by George Kelly (1955, cited Butt 2012; Stevens 2007), he focussed his work on individual differences and viewed personality as an individual experience (Stevens, 2007). It promotes constructs which Kelly used to describe the bipolar dimensions (e.g. Friendly/cold, interesting/boring) which underlie the ways in which a person makes sense of their world (Stevens 2007). Based in the phenomenological perspective, which focuses is on how things (especially other people) appear different to each individual, personal construct theory aims to understand how an individual uses their subjective experiences to create a set of personal constructs which in turn help them to make sense of the world and to take account of the distinctiveness of each individuals personality (Butt 2012). Personal construct theory considers individual differences as taking account of and recognising each individual’s view of the world and how this helps to create their p ersonality and who they become as an individual (Butt 2012; Stevens 2007). Kelly (1955, cited Butt 2012; Stevens 2007) argued it is peoples own experiences which build their set of constructs and these are used to evaluate situations. Two people assessing the same scenario will therefore see things differently, and this is where individual differences occur. Constructs are seen as being fluid and looking at oneself through another’s eyes, individuals can make conscious choices in order to change their view of the world and their personality (Butt 2012). However, as individuals put a lot of effort into building these constructions, Kelly (1955, cited Butt 2012) argued the individual may not wish to change them. Personal construct theory is grounded in subjective methodology. Kelly (1955, cited Butt 2012) developed the Repertory Grid to investigate the sets of personal constructs used by individuals. This works through the process of individuals designating constructs to all persons considered to be a part of their life. This enables the bipolar dimensions to be determined. When analysed it reveals the differences found in each individual’s experiences and how they will assess the same person or situation in completely differing ways. If a person is rigid in their constructs they may believe an individual who is aloof would also be a cold person. Having this rigidity in a personality could lead to relationship problems as opposed to someone with a more fluid personality. Constructs are created subconsciously, so by using the grid, individuals are able to gain insight and relate their own particular meaning to their surrounding environment which would not usually be available (Butt, 20 12). A strength of personal construct theory is it adds a holistic understanding of individual differences. It also transcends both the individual-society dualism and agency-structure dualism, the individual is considered from their own experiences and also by being part of the social world (Hollway, 2012). Personal construct theory accepts people change and society can help in promoting this change. Personal construct theory does have limitations. The findings cannot be compared across a wider population. It is also a relatively new theory and as a result has not been researched or tested to the same extent as trait theory. Trait theory is an older theory and has been thoroughly researched and tested extensively. The methodology is objective and the ontology views humans as information processing entities and by using personality measurements such as Eysenck’s personality inventory, larger groups of individuals can be compared. The aim is the objective measurement of individual differences. A biological reductionist attitude to individual differences was adopted by Eysenck suggesting traits are biologically determined, making them consistent and giving predictive value. This reductionist approach means problems with dualism are avoided as the behaviour is reduced to physiological levels. This enables behaviour to be better understood. The objectivity and consistency allows trait theory a broader range for application and its findings can be used to pinpoint trends within organisations. Being grounded in the experimental tradition the knowledge production is limited to the data with no reference t o the influence of social environments and individual experiences (Hollway 2012). Trait theory does have other limitations, it only describes personality and identifies trends it does not explain it; neither does it explain behaviour (Skinner 1974, cited Butt 2012). It is designed to measure reactions and consistency in the reactions of individuals in certain situations. Mischel (1968, cited Butt 2012) argued that trait theory methods reduced the complexity of human behaviour to become more general. He also argued that there is very little evidence supporting the consistency in behaviour that is claimed by trait theorists assuming that behaviour is fixed over time, compared to the considerable amount of substantial evidence to support behaviours changing in time and in different situations. Compared with personal construct theory, trait theory is seen to be an apt way of considering personality resembling lay theories used by individuals when gauging others. Individuals are able to predict future behaviour assuming that these traits are consistent (Butt 2012). Personality traits are seen as biological and rigid within trait theory and unlikely to change. As a result has it has a less practical use, compared with personal construct theory, in assisting changes in personality. Unlike personal constructs, how the individual’s social life influences the individuals personality is not taken in to account within trait theory. As personal construct theory is subjective, in comparison to the objectivity of trait theory, it is situated in time and place whereas the situated knowledge displayed in the trait theory data from the questionnaires are specific to the current situation and are not necessarily generalised therefore could be ecologically invalid when taken out of context. Individual personalities are considered to be rich with differences and largely taken in to account within personal constructs, which is not seen in trait theory (Butt 2012). As personal construct theory uses a qualitative interview method, any power that the therapist has would be in drafting the questions needed to gain details of the personal experiences of the client. The client can then interpret these and place onto the repertory grid. The power relations found in personal construct theory are by no means to the same degree as those found within trait theory. The repertory grid method stops the researcher having much influence over the research findings and is a large strength of personal construct theory (Salmon 2003 cited Butt 2012). Trait theorists have more power over the individual, coming from the experimental tradition, it is argued that rather than totally showing an individual’s personality traits accurately, the outcomes are heavily influenced by the personality and experience of the researcher as they have influence over the design of the questions and can manipulate this design. Therefore, trait theory findings have the potential to be inaccurate as individuals are judged against what is treated as normal by people who they believe are the authority on the subject (Mischel 1968, cited Butt 2012). Psychometric measures are used in education in such a way the result is pupils are only taught how to pass tests by their teachers. It was argued by Salmon (2003, cited Butt 2012) by teaching and testing students in this way, the ability level becomes rigid and the learning becomes generalised. Students are then grouped according to how they have performed in the test and their individual personalities are ignored. Personal construct theory in contrast to trait theory, do not see students abilities as fixed but are somewhat fluid. Salmon (2003, cited Butt 2012) applied essential parts of personal construct theory to education and argued the way that trait theorists suggests children learn is false and children do not leave their own personal worlds at the door when they enter the classroom. Instead meanings are derived from a personal system of understandings. In the way each student’s individuality brings with it their own world and their own personality within world. This me ans they will have different views on learning styles to others, a type one pupil loves another may hate and Salmon argued to promote personal development and growth, schools need to take account of the current personal constructs held by each student. The Salmon Line was later developed as a qualitative tool, where personal meanings are plotted on a line. These represent the student’s current abilities and their desired goals. This allows students to see how they are progressing and what they need to do to change and grow using their own meanings and sense of progression, and giving them an active part in their learning (Salmon 2003, cited Butt 2012). Trait theorists see traits as fixed, determined by biological factors and unchanging through the environment which would suggest individuals have no part in changing their personality traits and social structures to not have any bearing on personality traits at all. However, the methodology used in trait theory means that it has a wide scope to be used across larger populations. In contrast, personal construct theory accepts people change and society facilitates that change, allowing for a better understanding as to why change happens in different situations, when this happens and how this happens. Variations of personal construct theory allows insight to change in the future, for example the ‘Salmon Line’ helps to promote learning by allowing students to set their own objectives to their learning and be aware of what they need to change in their personality to achieve it. This doesn’t make either of the theories right when it comes to explaining individuals diffe rence, as demonstrated they both contribute to our understanding of individual differences in very contrasting ways, and both have their fair share of strengths and weaknesses. Word Count: 2053 References: Butt. T, (2012) ‘Individual Differences’ in D. Langdridge, K. Mahnedran, S. Taylor (2nd ed) Critical Readings in Social Psychology, Maidenhead, Open University Press/Milton Keynes, The Open University. Hollway, W. (2012), ‘Social psychology: past and present’ in W. Hollway, H. Lucey, and A. Phoenix, (eds) Social Psychology Matters, Maidenhead, Open University Press/Milton Keynes, The Open University. Hollway, W. (2012), ‘Methods and knowledge in social psychology’ in W. Hollway, H. Lucey, and A. Phoenix, (eds) Social Psychology Matters, Maidenhead, Open University Press/Milton Keynes, The Open University. Stevens, R. (2007), ‘Person Psychology: psychoanalytic and humanistic perspectives’. In D. Miell, A. Phoenix, K. Thomas (Eds), Mapping Psychology (2nd ed). Maidenhead, Open University Press/Milton Keynes, The Open University.

Articles Of Confederation :: essays research papers

Articles of Confederation It would have been very difficult to run an effective government under the Articles of Confederation. Many of the great minds politically active after the American Revolution realized this; thus arrived the birth of one of the greatest political documents of all time: The Constitution. With the implement of the Constitution, the United States government became effective. The product of some of the greatest minds to ever exist in this world, the Articles did have some positive effects on society. It successfully put an end to the Revolutionary War, it negotiated a favorable end to the war in the Treaty of Paris, and created a model for the admission of new territories courtesy of the Northwest Ordinance. Nonetheless, it was much too weak to give the new nation the necessary foundation on which the growth of society could be started from. For one thing, any amendment of the Articles required a unanimous vote throughout the colonies. Since this was almost impossible, there always being two sides to everything [a pro and a con], changing the Articles to eliminate the ideas that did not function properly was near impossible. Another factor of the Articles' ineffectiveness was that Congress was in essence tied in its authority. After the war, the colonists trusted no ultimate authority; not even one they designed. It could not regulate commerce, so what resulted was thirteen colonies with different taxations and tariff laws. This only added to the already present feelings of dislike and distrust which had existed between the colonies since they were first established. After this period of eight years, the "Critical Period", the light at the end of the tunnel arrived with Thomas Jefferson writing the Constitution. It delegated the power, at the discretion of the people. It was designed to be amended; the great minds who designed it realized that they themselves were not infallible, and could make mistakes. The beauty of the Constitution was that it allowed for these mistakes. Instead of the outrageous unanimous vote of states to change it, two-thirds of Congress and then three-fourths of the states must approve. It ensured that no one section of government could grow so powerful to the point that it could be considered a Parliament through the Checks and

American Health Care: Gore And Bradley One Problem Two Solutions :: essays research papers

The nation's economy has produced 9.5 million jobs in the last four years and raised wages for even the lowest-paid workers. As Americans buy more homes, cars and other consumer goods, the number buying health insurance has not budged. Now, the 44 million Americans without insurance are taking a prominent place in the national spotlight, thanks to the Democratic presidential primary. And in Vice President Al Gore and former senator Bill Bradley, the nation has a chance to sort out how far it is willing to go, if at all, toward promising health care for everyone. In proposals issued recently, both Democratic candidates have promised to cover all 11 million children who have no insurance, with taxpayers paying the entire cost for the poor. Gore and Bradley would also give substantial help to the parents of the nation's poorest children. But they split over one growing class of people: the millions of adults who are not quite poor, but who find insurance so expensive that they do not buy it.Almost 17 percent of full-time workers have no insurance, often because employers do not offer it or have shifted costs to employees. Many of the new jobs created in the current boom are at small businesses, which are less likely to offer coverage. Bradley has proposed an expansive plan that helps people further up the economic ladder and which carries an expansive price tag to match. Gore, by contrast, would spend money on the poorest and near-poor while offering only limited help to others.The question has barely been raised among the Republican presidential contenders. But it has sparked the sharpest debate yet in the Democratic campaign, and polls show that voters are likely to make it a general election issue. With surveys suggesting that no candidate can win the Democratic nomination without a strong health plan, Bradley boasts that he is proposing a big idea to attack a big problem. He has derided Gore's plan as ''definitely timid.'' The tactic has helped raise Bradley's profile among Democrats Gore, by contrast, talks freely of his plan's limitations, and his staff uses the word ''incremental'' to describe it. They say Bradley's plan is too expensive and would divert dollars from other purposes, such as shoring up Medicare.The true cost of the two plans is open to debate. Bradley says he would spend up to $650 billion over 10 years to insure as many as 39 million more people.